Pay for unpaid housework

In a village in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, a woman receives a small but steady monthly income – not a salary, since she has no formal job, but an unconditional cash transfer from the government.

Premila Balawi said the money was used to pay for medicines, vegetables and her son’s school fees. The sum of 1,500 rupees ($16: £12) may be small, but its effects – a predictable income, a sense of control and a taste of independence – are anything but.

Her story is increasingly common. Currently, 118 million adult women in 12 Indian states receive unconditional cash transfers from the government, making India one of the world’s largest and least researched experiments in social policy.

India, long accustomed to subsidizing food, fuel and rural jobs, has fallen into something more radical: paying adult women simply because they keep families running, shoulder the burden of unpaid care and have a constituency too large to ignore.

Eligibility filters vary — age thresholds, income caps and exclusions for households with government employees, taxpayers or owners of cars or large tracts of land.

“Unconditional cash transfers mark a significant expansion of welfare systems across Indian states in favor of women,” said Prabha Kotiswaran, professor of law and sociology. The judge at King’s College London told the BBC.

Monthly transfers of 1,000 to 2,500 rupees ($12 to $30) are modest, accounting for about 5-12% of household income, but are regular. With 300 million women now holding bank accounts, transferring money has become administratively simple.

women usually Spend money on home and family needs – children’s education, groceries, cooking gas, medical and emergency expenses, paying off small debts and the occasional personal item such as gold or small comforts.

What sets India apart from countries like Mexico, Brazil or Indonesia that have large conditional cash transfer programs is that there are no conditions: the money arrives regardless of whether children are in school or families are below the poverty line.

In 2013, Goa became the first state to introduce an unconditional cash transfer scheme to women. This phenomenon emerged on the eve of the outbreak in 2020, when the Northeast assam A program targeting disadvantaged women was launched. Since then, the transfers have become a political extravaganza.

A recent wave of unconditional cash transfers has targeted adult women, with some states recognizing their unpaid domestic and care work. tamil nadu Treat its payment as a “grant of rights” while west bengal The program also recognizes women’s unpaid fees.

In other states, experts say, this understanding is implicit: Policymakers expect women to use transfer funds for home and family benefits.

This focus on women’s economic role has also impacted politics: In 2021, Tamil actor-turned-politician Kamal Haasan promised to “provide a salary to housewives.” (His fledgling party failed.) By 2024, the promise of cash transfers focused on women helped parties in Maharashtra, Jharkhand, Odisha, Haryana and Andhra Pradesh to victory.

The political power of cash transfers was clearly demonstrated in the recent elections in Bihar. The government transferred 10,000 rupees ($112; £85) to the bank accounts of 7.5 million women under a livelihood creation scheme weeks before the country’s poorest state went to the polls. Women voted in greater numbers than men, which had a decisive impact on the outcome.

Critics called it blatant vote buying, but the results were clear: women helped the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)-led alliance to a landslide victory. Many see the cash infusion as a reminder of how fiscal support can be used as political leverage.

However, Bihar is just a small part of the bigger picture. Across India, tens of millions of women receive regular unconditional cash transfers.

Maharashtra alone promises benefits to 25 million women; Odisha’s scheme covers 71% of women voters.

In some policy circles, these plans are derided as vote-buying freebies. They also put pressure on state finances: 12 states will spend about $18 billion on such spending this fiscal year. one Report Think tank PRS Legislative Research noted that half of these states face revenue deficits – which occurs when a state borrows money to pay for regular expenses without creating assets.

But many believe it also reflects a slow recognition of an issue that Indian feminists have been debating for decades: the economic value of unpaid domestic and care work.

According to the latest time utilization survey, Indian women will spend nearly 5 hours a day on such work by 2024, more than three times the time spent by men. This uneven burden helps explain why India remains stubbornly Female labor force participation is low. At least cash transfers acknowledge this imbalance, experts say.

Are they effective?

The evidence remains weak but suggestive. A 2025 study in Maharashtra found that 30% of eligible women did not register – sometimes because of documentation issues, sometimes out of a sense of self-sufficiency. But of those who do, almost all have control of their own bank accounts.

A 2023 West Bengal survey found that 90% of people operate their own accounts and 86% decide how to spend their money. Most people use it for food, education and medical expenses; although it is difficult to bring about change, regularity provides security and a sense of agency.

A more detailed study by Professor Kirtiswaran and colleagues showed different results.

In Assam, most women spend their money on essential items. Many people appreciate the dignity it brings, but few associate it with recognition of unpaid work, and most people still prefer paid work.

In Tamil Nadu, women who get money represent peace of mind, reduced marital conflict and newfound confidence – a rare social bonus. In Karnataka, beneficiaries reported eating better, having more say in household decisions and wanting higher payments.

However, only a small minority understand the scheme as compensation for unpaid care work; word has not yet spread. Even so, women say the money allows them to question politicians and deal with emergencies. Various studies show that most women have complete control over cash.

Professor Kirtiswaran said: “Evidence shows that cash transfers are useful for women to meet their own and their family’s immediate needs. They also restore dignity to women who are financially dependent on their husbands for every small expense.”

Importantly, none of the surveys found evidence that money prevents women from seeking paid work or reinforces gender roles – two major concerns for feminists, according to a report by Professors Kotiswaran, Gale Andrew and Madhusree Jana.

Nor did they reduce the amount of unpaid work done by women, the researchers found. However, they do enhance financial autonomy and modestly enhance bargaining power. They are neither a panacea nor a poison: they are useful but limited tools operating in a patriarchal society where cash alone cannot combat structural inequalities.

What to do next?

Emerging research provides clear hints.

Eligibility rules should be simplified, particularly for women who do heavy unpaid care work. Transfers should remain unconditional and independent of marital status.

But researchers say messaging should emphasize women’s rights and the value of unpaid work, and financial literacy efforts must be deepened. Cash transfers are no substitute for employment opportunities; many women say what they really want is gainful employment and lasting respect.

“If transfers are combined with messages that recognize women’s unpaid work, they may disrupt the gender division of labor when paid employment opportunities arise,” Professor Kotiswaran said.

India’s quiet cash transfer revolution is still in its early stages. But it has shown that small, regular payments directly to women can shift power in subtle but important ways.

Whether this becomes a path to empowerment, or simply a new form of political patronage, will depend on what India chooses to build around money.